Volume 4, Issue 3, March – 2019 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Internatıonal Trade Barrıers and their Effects on

Abstract:- This study aims to understand the has been built, there is still much to achieve across its
international trade barriers that affects e-commerce 1,900km border.
businesses in Turkey. Firstly, it does a literature review of
some of the major traditional theories in international This study shall review trade theories established over
trade such as mercantilism, absolute advantage, the ages that have shaped business and political relations
comparative advantage, and H, O model (Factor whose results today are apparent. The theories shall be used
Endowment of K, L). Next, it studies some major regional to attempt an explanation on today's complex trade and
blocks and seeks to understand how the countries in these economic relations. Next, research findings shall be used to
blocks manage to go pass their trade barriers and explain the challenges Turkish companies face when doing
problems to successfully engage in meaningful economic business and it shall end with recommendations that might
cooperation with each other. In the same light, it studies benefit the Turkish market and ease businesses.
the trade barriers that Turkey might be suffering with
the aim of knowing why they exist and what the effects II. CONCEPTUAL REVİEW
are in the Turkish e-commerce. Lastly, it presents its
findings from a quantitative case study analysis done with  Mercantilism
a series of companies were administered questionnaires. This theory is believed to be one of the oldest theories
The results of the study summarise this researcher’s on the planet dating back to the 15th century and sailing
earlier thoughts that trade barriers actually have a through to the 18th century. The most overwhelming proposal
debilitating effect on e-commerce in Turkey. Lastly, the of the theory suggests that in times past, the wealth of nations
study proposes some solutions to help solve the issue. were measured by the quantity of gold and silver amassed.
Tribe (2014, pp. 1-14) views that state capacity then was
Keywords:- İnternational Trade, Trade Barriers, Turkish E- measured by land and by the quantity of jewels such as gold
commerce, Trade Theories, Classical Theories, Modern and silver it could amass. One thing of significant importance
Theories. to note about this theory is that its of the assertion that gold
and silver are scares and hard to find. Therefore, the race to
I. INTRODUCTİON get as much as possible in order to maintain the status quo is
indespenscible otherwise one finds himself stuck to serving
Its amazing how much technological advancements others. Economics (2012) adds that mercantilism holds on the
have made life easy and have worked a great deal to unite concepts of “bullionism” and “protectionism”. What this
humans in areas unthought of before. Trade has become means is that states might be on the ploy to do anything they
easier, accessible more feasible than it was before and can to get gold and silver even if it means bullying other
international boundaries almost don’t exist in some regions. states. This might also include those that might have acquired
As a matter of fact, some borders have moved from solid to some but may have little state strength to protect their wealth.
liquid and this has made human relations easier and the As such any powerful state on the prowl of these riches,
successes on human and state development plenty. would do anything possible to keep possess these resources.
Schöfberger (2019) is of the opinion that most European In addition, states in the yesteryears, had to come up with a
nations have tirelessly fought to move from solid to liquid complex system of international trade and bilateral exchange
transnationalism. However, though much good has been whereby the exchange of needful goods and services would
gotten from the benefits of globalization, the political barriers equate the returns of gold and silver. Sometimes these were
that have resulted in the expansion of trade are also done rather forcefully with the central operating system
overwhelming. A good example of a barrier to trade that has coordinated by the state and it developed a concept some
solidified borders and trending on the medial is the US- scholars call “neomercantilism” (Hettne, 1993). Mercantilism
Mexico border wall of president Trump. CNN (2016) reveals is one of the first theories to demonstrate the role of the state
that though some of the wall separating the US and Mexico in the economy and in foreign policy (Economics (2012). As
a matter of fact, Economics (2012) proposes a basic

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Volume 4, Issue 3, March – 2019 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
definition of mercantilism to be “that the primary duty of the of the state to gain wealth, Adam Smith thought otherwise
state is to enhance and maintain both national wealth and and proposed the consumption capacity of citizens as well.
national power”. In addition, state control in the economy lies His theory considers that while the state maintains its foreign
at the epicentre of mercantilism. This means the more export policy of making so much money through trade, it could at
a state makes to another the more its goods would leave the the same time, purchase goods from partner and friendly
country. In return the importing state will have to export gold countries at a lower price and at a good quality in order to
and silver to the exporting nation. So, the exporting nation assure the quality standards of its population. Schumacher
makes more gold through export while the importing nation (2012a, pp. 54-80) adds that division of labour is essential
continuously spends most of its gold and silver in import. As and leads to quantitative and qualitative production
Hettne (1993) argues, neomercantilism is totally against the improvements. He adds that according to Adam Smith, when
import of goods and services. He continues that it strongly states promote domestic production economic growth and
advocates for continuous export in order to maximise the national wealth increases considerably and by these, states
most gains possible. Thus, the nutshell about mercantilism find the capacity to meet up with the wants and needs of their
rests on maximum exports and the maximum acquisition of citizens. Another great benefit of this is that it has an effect
gold and silver regardless of the cost and route taken. on output and productivity which increases as well.
Bridging World History (2014, pp. 3-4) adds that
“mercantilism was based on the use of government Schumacher (2012b, p.22-25) adds that Adam’s Smiths
intervention to promote the accumulation of profits, which theory clearly states that countries that invest in their local
was believed, would secure the prosperity and self- production will turn to experience a positive change and an
sufficiency of the state while benefiting those who increase in their living standards when they specialise in
contributed most to it, the urban commercial elite”. particular goods and services. He adds that countries with a
higher production per lower labour capital will turn to
 Absolute Advantage produce a particular good and would prefer to buy goods
This theory was developed by Adam Smith (1176) who from other countries that have the same absolute advantage in
is considered one of the founders of modern international production. In that way, if both countries turn to get into
trade. Infact, Schumacher (2012, pp. 54-80) thinks that the bilateral trade, they will simply exchange their goods with
theory of absolute advantage is nothing else but international each other and at the end both countries, will have their
trade and the complex economic relations that might result productions in each other’s territory. In a nutshell, the theory
from it. Furthermore, he continues that Adam Smith is no encourages countries to specialise as that will deepen their
doubt the founder of modern economics but laments that he wealth making capacity. More so, it will prevent them from
hasn’t received so much recognition from today’s scholars as spending resources in producing goods that require higher
well as practitioners of economics. Hunnicutt (2007, pp. 3) labour and capital factors of production.
believes that absolute advantage summarily is all about
financial wellness and adds that when properly applied, it  Comparative Advantage
carries health benefits and assures comfort from the political This theory is another building block and the theories of
goods dispensed. The quality of political goods ofcourse, international trade bringing with it deeper explanations of
would depend on the regime type and the fervency of their what practices might promote the wellbeing of states.
governance. Nations that have a strong economy do not fear Schumacher (2012b, p.22-25) is of the opinion that this
to take risks in investments and most times, these theory was founded by David Ricardo and it happens to be an
investments some of which might be long term, bring no extension of Adam Smith’s theory. Free trade centers in the
small gain to the countries. In fact, the stronger the financial discussion of this theory and claims that countries stand to
capacity of a state, the bigger its risks and the greater are its benefit from it if properly done. Econlib (2019) is of the
investment abilities. However, smaller or financially weaker opinion that everyone stands to benefit from international
states may fear to take these risks and may be busy counting trade if they pay attention to their skills and abilities and buy
their losses instead of daring again. other goods and services from countries that can produce
them with a low comparative advantage. Faccarello (2015)
The basic argument of Adam Smith (1776) in his thinks that two important concepts define the production
famous “Wealth of Nations” is a shift from the mainstream capacity of states which also has a direct effect on
mercantilist argument that reigned at the time. As stated international trade. They are labour and capital which
above mercantilism might be regarded as a theory that according to him do not have the same attitude between
promotes a very selfish minded intent that seeks to enrich the countries. That is to say the movements of these two between
powerful practitioner at all costs while at the same time countries internationally greatly differ from their mobility
keeping his competitors in perpetual bondage and poverty. domestically. Furthermore, he focuses on the theories of
Schumacher (2012, pp. 54-80) thinks that Adam Smith might domestic trade theory and the theory of labour value. He adds
have come out with the thought of educating the state about that the labour value most times determines the labour prices
the gains of spending on consumers and not just on and therefore, the relative value of commodities. To explain
producers. While mercantilism insists on the exporting power this principle, he cites Ricardo the father of comparative

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Volume 4, Issue 3, March – 2019 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
advantage who used two countries with different production Ghana, Sekou Toure of Guinea and Julius Nyerere of
capacities to explain his point. He used England and Portugal Tanzania were the foremost on the march to regional unity.
which produce cloth and wine. According to him both However, it was only in the 1970s and 1980s that concrete
countries had the capacities to produce both but differed in steps were taken to establish the economic integration and
their labour capital. That is one country spent more on creation of multinational institutions in all African sub-
producing one of the good than the other. Therefore, he regional communities (Niekerk, 2006, pp. 1-12). Niekerk
summarized that the countries should specialize on the one (2006, pp. 1-12) continues that some of the advantages of
whose production they master the most and they can produce these regional blocks are that they foster trade, increase the
without spending much capital. In a paraphrase, England likely hood for competition, diversification and hence
should concentrate more on cloth and Portugal on wine. So specialization, investments, reforms, signaling, insurance,
countries with higher comparative advantage should etc. These are paramount in the Millenium goals of the
specialize and trade with others what they can produce as African Union and until they and many more are satisfied,
well as buy what the other can produce at a lower cost. the African Union cannot claim to have succeeded.

 H, O Model (Factor Endowment of K, L) Within the African Union there are sub-regional
This model was named after Eli Hechsher and Bertil communities that all work for the same purpose of integrating
Ohlin of Swedish origins. Hence, the abbreviation of their member states and creating a prosperous Africa. One of such
last names H, O. Apparently, this theory is a building block sub-regional communities within the African Union is the
on Ricardo’s comparative theory of international trade. UK Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS –
Essays (2015) summarizes that “Eli Heckscher (1919) and CEEAC, French acronym). International Democracy Watch
Bertil Ohlin (1933) base their assumptions on the basis for (2012) writes that “ECCAS is an organization for promotion
crucial and substantial theoretical developments of and of regional economic co-operation in Central Africa.
international trade by emphasizing the relationships between Similarly, one of its objiectives is "the collective autonomy,
the composition of countries' factor endowments and raise the standard of living of its populations and maintain
commodity trade patterns”. According to Mediawiki (2010) economic stability through harmonious cooperation".
“the model demonstrates that a country will have a
comparative advantage in producing goods that are intensive The founding countries according to International
in the factor with which it is relatively abundant”. It may not Democratic Watch (2012) are in total eleven and they are
be wrong to think that the growth of technology which might “Gabon, Cameroon, the Central African Republic (CAR),
be shifting labour from solid to liquid might have a strong Chad, Congo Brazzaville and Equatorial Guinea - and those
effect on the global economy. This may also mean the of the Economic Community of Great Lake Countries
differences between goods in the market simply come from (CEPGL), except Rwanda - Burundi and the Democratic
these developed factors of production and countries that have Republic of Congo (DRC), as well as Angola and Sao Tome
it at their best will make the most of international trade. Since and Principe”. Since its creation, this organization has known
countries differ greatly in their comparative advantage, some some serious troubles such as maritime piracy, the rise of
may thrive well with labour or capital incentives. Therefore, armed groups, civil wars especially in the Great Lakes and
countries with more labour than capital will definitely export partly in the Central African sub-region; trafficking, disease,
more relative labour intensive goods and will most likely famine and leadership problems related to governance among
import goods from capital intensive countries and vice versa. its member states. However, it has remained put on its
mission statement and overall objectives to work for the
III. REGIONAL BLOCKS development and success of the African continent regardless.

The World has been grouped by countries that share the Another supporting regional community organization is
same identity, spatial space, culture and history or those that Central African economic and monetary community
see a strong reason to bond. As such, many regional blocks (CEMAC). The economic community comprises of six
do exist in the World such as the African Union, West countries, Cameroon, Gabon, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, The
African Customs Union, and European Union, etc who in Central African Republic, and Congo Brazzaville. It’s
their respects seek to promote their common good. The headquarter resides in Bangui, The Central African Republic.
African Union happens to be one of the most conspicuous The sub-regional community was created and “established to
regional blocks to be discussed here. It was created some promote cooperation and exchange among its members”
fifty decades ago, and it stands tall as the irreplaceable voice (International Democracy Watch, 2012b). Trade agreements
of the African continent under which are many sub-regional between the member countries are currently doing fine and
organizations. The coming to be of the African Union is as a the member states were able to grow up to maturity in 2017
result of the hardwork of a number of leaders who tirelessly when they finally transformed their borders from solid to
called for the integration of Africa. Even before the liquid. Though the liquefaction of borders had been signed as
declaration of independence, the march for a united Africa early as 2013, the states were only able to overcome the
was already on and leaders such as Nkwame Nkrumah of many barriers they face in 2017. Added to this organization is

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ISSN No:-2456-2165
a sister sub-regional community in West Africa called the dissolution of borders between states like the creation of the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Schenghen zone (ACS, 2018), and abolition of border checks
in the CEMAC region (APA news, 2017) there are enormous
The Economic Community of West African States was challenges many countries still face especially in their
established by the Treaty of Lagos signed by fifteen West business transactions. Thus, trade is constantly hindered by
African Heads of State and Government in May 28, 1975 these countries as they follow their national policies of tight
(Economic Commission for Africa, 2018). Noble, (1994) is immigration and migration controls.
of the opinion that when fourteen African countries using the
Franc CFA foolishly succumbed to its devaluation in the In simple terms trade barriers are limitations imposed
early 1990s it pushed these West African countries to seek on certain products or services by countries in order to
for the modification of an already existing organ founded in protect their productions or promote their own home made
1975 (Cernicky, 2004, pp. 1-2) which could satisfy their products. European Commission (2016, pp. 7) reports that
collective survival. The membership of this community trade barriers could be policies codified by states to impede
includes the following: Cape Verde, Benin, Ivory Coast, the smooth flow of bilateral or trilateral (multilateral) trade
Burkina Faso, Nigeria, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea between countries. In the nut shell, it is a direct intention to
Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo restrict international trade (Pettinger, 2017). The European
(ECOWAS, 2016). Commission (2016, pp.7) adds that as of 2017 Russia was
recorded to have the highest trade barriers followed by
Moving a little away from the African continent, the Brazil, China and India. Some of the common trade barriers
European Union just like the African Union or the American used are tariffs and quotas which are measures on goods and
Union of member states, (EU- henceforth) is both a political, services that states might not want in their home country.
quasi-military and economic union made up of over 28 International Trade Center (2013) writes that Mauritius just
countries that work hard to build a strong Europe that is like Turkey, Mexico is one of those countries that practices
capable of facing the challenges of the time. More so, the Keynesianism that is state sponsored economic direction.
need to overrun the sediments of the American hegemony is These countries impose tariffs and quotas on foreign goods in
a strong basis to build a more united Europe that will stand order to protect their domestic productions. Board (2018)
the tests of time. The European Union of today was founded adds that India grew to what it is today thanks to its ability to
by two great warring states, France and Germany that took protect domestic companies which today are leaders in Hi-
the lead to create an atmosphere of peace and serenity. tech, pharmaceuticals and agriculture.
Following the democratic peace theory which asserts that two
democracies cannot go to war (Mello, 2016, p.2-6), these two IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
countries, saw the need to overcome their imperfections and
unite as one. European Union (2018) writes that resistance One of the fundamental questions this research seeks to
fighters, lawyers and people from other works of life fought answer is if “international trade barriers have effects or not
hard to create an organization that will advance freedom of on Turkey’s economy and if Turkish E-commerce industry
rights and the development of persons. Civitas (2015) adds will do well with or without trade barriers”. To answer this
that the creation of the union was a deliberate attempt to question the following testable assertions were made
make sure that both France and Germany were never at war  Proposition 1: Turkey will continue to trade well with a
again. To achieve this the European Economic Community developing economy with or without trade barriers.
was created and coal became their foremost trading product.  Proposition 2: Turkey will not trade well if trade barriers
Over the years the community grew from strength to strength are not dismantled or compromised.
and from policy to policy. Today, they have an agenda for  Proposition 3: International trade is meaningless without
dominance and presently, the idea of having a European their corresponding barriers.
Army floods roundtable discussions.  Proposition 4: Turkey needs trade barriers in order to
bring out their best for national growth and development.
 Trade Barrıers
In times past moving from one country to another in The data collection instrument was designed and it
some regions was extremely difficult and travellers had to contained a total of about 11 open ended and closed ended
overcome breathtaking checkpoints and some times nagging questions. The study used the non-probability sampling
immigration officers who took no chances. In the same light, (Laerd, 2012) which does not require analyzing voluminous
custom regulations made it extremely difficult moving goods data of the respondents to be selected. The respondents
from one nation to another. Furthermore, they sometimes selected were entrepreneurs in the Turkish E-Commerce
needed long periods before getting to their destination. sector. The research questionnaire was administered
Nevertheless, things are constantly changing with the considering gender equality and respondents were given
liquidity of borders thanks to Schenghen countries that some time to provide their answers. The instrument was
openned that door for the liquidity of borders (Bellezer, 2013, administered in Istanbul, Antalya, Mersin, Konya, Gaziantep,
pp. 1-3). Though much has been achieved with the Izmir and Ankara and the sample population was limited to

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ISSN No:-2456-2165
local Turkish E-commerce companies. The researcher chose trade barriers limits the scale of imports and exports. While a
this sample because reaching those companies in time, group of 5 responded that their businesses can never be better
distance and language exchanges were easy and less costly. without trade barriers. They went further to say, in open
More so, these cities are home to over 85% of Turkish E- economies without any trade barriers, there will be a huge
commerce companies. In addition, a total of 45 tussle for customers and as such companies that are weak in
questionnaires were sent out to 45 companies but only 36 customer targeting strategies like advertisement will not be
came back filled giving an 80% success return in the able to survive the market challenges.
administration of the instrument. Of the 36 questionnaires 24
were filled by males and 12 by females. This gives us a Basing the case study on Turkish companies, their
gender proportion of 66.7 % for the men and 33.3%. major importation zones are Africa, Asia and South America
Secondly, though optional the respondents provided their while their export zones are the Middle East countries, Africa
ages which range from 25 to 55 years old. and Europe. A free economy or liberal economy without
trade barriers, will therefore, bring in competition from some
Putting the 11 questionnaires in to place, the of these importation zones who turn to have both the
representatives from the various companies that is, from comparative cost advantage and absolute advantage in the
company 1 to company 36 were given room for an interactive production of certain goods and services.
quesitioning. Each company gave their point of view on the
11 questions taking in to account their day to day activities. V. CONCLUSION
Given that most of these companies work on same field and
same export and import line, their responses turn out to be This study would like to firstly appreciate the founders
similar. In questions 1, the study noticed that Company 1, of the trade theories discussed above. Their contributions to
company 9 and company 16 import the same products. the wealth of knowledge is one of the reasons why trade
Company 3,12, 14 and 24 are importing same product as relations between countries are getting better, not to say the
well. The analysis was done in this manner, involving all the least. Nevertheless, the study amid many challenges, was
companies from company 1 to company 36 so as to have a able to satisfy its research question, "What are the effects of
perfect knowledge of what each company or group of trade barriers on E-commerce in Turkey? From the analysis
companies export as well as the various challenges they face of data, it shows that most Turkish companies suffer greatly
in their daily businesses. from state imposed barriers to either imports or exports.
From the analysis, many traders think that they will do better
The rest of the questions were analysed in same manner if the barriers didn't exist while a handful think otherwise. In
right to question 11. Regrouping companies according to addition, this study thinks that it would be nice for the
similarity in responses was done in relation to the various Turkish government to relax some of its trade laws and tariffs
trade theories. That is each response or group of responses in order to let domestic businessmen and women to make
were analysed and attributed to the trade theories which more trade benefits and connections that could in the long
enabled the reacher to understand the various challenges each run, benefit the entire country. As such, the lack of these
of them go through in terms of trade barriers. Looking at the relaxed laws also affects banks that make it no easy for
peculiar question like question 3 which seeks to know the financial transactions especially from without the country.
main challenge or challenges they face on their daily import Moneys wired from outside Turkey sometimes do not enter
or export, a total of 21 companies that is Companies 1 to 12, the country or are not given to the beneficiaries due to
14, 16, 18, 21, 23, 24, 29, 30 and 33, were of the opinion that cumbersome laws and restrictions and this greatly reduces
they suffered from high import duties which were seconded the business potential of direct foreign investment.
by the instability of the Turkish Liras. They shared another
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