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Learning cities in East Asia: Japan, the Republic of Korea and China

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Abstract

Lifelong learning cities emerged in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s; in the Republic of Korea in the 2000s and 2010s; and in China mostly from 2000 onwards. They were a countermeasure to the increasing challenges of global as well as post-industrial uncertainties at the turn of the century, when cities were trying to find governmental instruments to engage in cultural processes, community building and personal development as the new way of urban life. Learning was perceived to be a panacea to solve the social problems occurring in overwhelming processes of modernisation and industrialisation. The authors of this paper assert that the practice of and research on learning cities, especially in the East Asian region, need to go beyond the technical rationalities which are guiding government tools, and explain the realities to which they are meant to be applied. In order to do this, the authors investigated three separate but inter-connected scenes found in Japan, the Republic of Korea and China, revealing that the learning city is a phenomenon which reflects complex social dynamics and the interaction of many minds. While the cases in this region are distinctive, they do share some common characteristics. The authors place these within what they term a “community relations model”, which they contrast with the “individual competence model” which is usually found in initiatives of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and schemes implemented in the area of the European Union (EU).

Résumé

Les villes apprenantes en Asie orientale : Japon, République de Corée et Chine – Des villes d’apprentissage tout au long de la vie sont apparues au Japon dans les années 1980 et 1990, en République de Corée entre 2000 et 2010, et en Chine essentiellement à partir de 2000. Elles constituaient une contre-mesure aux défis croissants posés au début du siècle par les incertitudes de la mondialisation et de la post-industrialisation. Les villes tentaient alors de trouver des solutions publiques pour s’engager dans des processus culturels, la construction d’une communauté et le développement personnel, traits d’un nouveau mode de vie urbain. L’apprentissage était perçu comme une panacée pouvant résoudre les problèmes sociaux résultant des phénomènes implacables de modernisation et d’industrialisation. Les auteurs de l’article avancent que la pratique et la recherche relatives aux villes apprenantes, notamment dans la région d’Asie orientale, doivent dépasser les rationalités techniques qui guident les instruments publics, et expliquent les réalités auxquelles ces derniers sont censés s’appliquer. Dans ce but, les auteurs ont étudié trois scènes distinctes mais interconnectées, sélectionnées au Japon, en République de Corée et en Chine; ils signalent que la ville apprenante est un phénomène reflétant une dynamique sociale complexe et l’interaction de nombreux points de vue. Si les différents cas de cette même région sont spécifiques, ils possèdent aussi des caractéristiques communes. Les auteurs classifient ces dernières selon ce qu’ils appellent un « modèle de relations communautaires » , qu’ils opposent au « modèle de compétences individuelles », ce dernier figurant couramment dans les initiatives de l’Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économiques (OCDE) et dans les schémas appliqués par l’Union Européenne (UE).

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Notes

  1. For more background information on Japanese kominkan, see Iwasa (2010).

  2. The Lifelong Education Law of the Republic of Korea (MOEHRD 1999) succeeded the Social Education Law (MOEHRD 1982).

  3. The term “open door policy”, in the context of modern China, refers to Deng Xiaoping’s policy of opening up to the outside world, welcoming foreign investment in an effort to modernise Chinese industry and boost China’s economy.

  4. The Japanese Social Education Law [sometimes also referred to in English as the Adult Education Act] was ratified in 1949 (MEXT 1949). Iwasa remarks that the definition of “social education”, in Article 2 of this Act, “is quite similar to the concept of ‘non-formal education’” (Iwasa 2010, p. 65).

  5. The Japanese Lifelong Learning Promotion Law of 1991 (MEXT 1991) was complemented by the Basic Law on Education (MEXT 2006), which included an amendment in which the philosophy of lifelong learning was clarified. The Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education (MEXT 2008) included the measure of “creating an environment for lifelong learning” for each “basic direction of education measures”. And the first section of the Second Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education (MEXT 2013) comprises “four basic policy directions to build a lifelong-learning society based on autonomy, collaboration and creation” (all quotations taken from the provisional translations provided on the website of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology at http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a05.htm [accessed 14 August 2013]).

  6. Translations of quotations from sources which are unavailable in English such as this one were made by the authors of this article for the purpose of its publication in English. The page references (if any) given refer to the Asian-language source (Japanese, Korean or Chinese) listed in the reference section.

  7. “Heisei” is the current era in Japan; the reign of Emperor Akihito, who acceded to the throne in 1989. The term “Heisei merge (“sometimes also referred to as the “Heisei mergers”) refers to an initiative of the Japanese central government which significantly reduced the number of cities/towns/villages by way of merging them. The measure was implemented due to demographic developments (overaging in combination with low birthrates, resulting in shrinking communities) in conjunction with problems of government funding allocation.

  8. In 2012, Toyota City, a regional urban centre in the north of Aichi Prefecture, had a population of 422,830; for more information see http://jscp.nepc.or.jp/en/toyota/index.shtml [accessed 12 August 2013].

  9. The literal meaning of sumibiraki is “open living”.

  10. The Korean National Institute for Lifelong Learning (NILE) was established in 2008. Its purpose is to motivate lifelong education for the people by performing the tasks related to the promotion of lifelong education in accordance with Article 19 of the Lifelong Education Law (MOEHRD 1999).

  11. The June Democracy Movement, also known as the June Uprising, was a nationwide democracy movement in the Republic of Korea that generated mass protests from 10 June to 29 June 1987. The demonstrations forced the ruling government to hold elections and institute other democratic reforms which led to the establishment of the Sixth Republic.

  12. The first three officially recognised learning cities/learning regions in the Republic of Korea were Gwangmyeng city, Jinan-gun and Yuseong-gu.

  13. The credit bank system (CBS) is an open education system which recognises diverse learning experiences gained not only in school but also out of school. When a student accumulates the necessary CBS-approved credits, that student can obtain an associate or bachelor’s degree. Cyber colleges are institutions offering distance learning courses, a mode of learning which already existed before private homes had computers, but is now growing exponentially.

  14. Lifelong learning centres in the Republic of Korea are a kind of local learning centres that deliver adult education programmes and learning circle platforms. They are established, financed and managed by local municipalities. Currently 395 lifelong learning centres are operated nationwide (MOEST 2012).

  15. Gangnam is the richest district of Seoul, with financial centres and business towns, where the fashion and lifestyle represent the way in which the rich live. “Gangnam Style”, a K-pop song with dance moves by the South Korean musician Psy, sarcastically mocks this way of life. Its YouTube video version, which was shot in the Gangnam district, reached a record number of downloads in 2012.

  16. The term shequ designates a sub-district-sized community unit and its administrative branch office, now reformed into a new kind of community service unit. Shequ education, as we explain in a later section of this article, is provided in local community culture activity centres.

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Han, S., Makino, A. Learning cities in East Asia: Japan, the Republic of Korea and China. Int Rev Educ 59, 443–468 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-013-9372-2

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