Contents zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVU List of Contributors ix Acknowledgements xiii Introduction: Beloved: Love and Languishing in Middle Eastern Writings DANGEROUS 1 LOVE 1 Writing to the End of Love: Wahid and the Motif Extremes ofIbn al-Rumi 13zyxwvutsrqp Sarah R. bin Tyeer 2 Sexual Displacement in Season of Migration to the North 41 Asaad Alsaleh 3 The Seduction of Fayruz Bahrl: The Affective Dimensions of Cultural Politics in Gamal al-Ghitanl's Hikayat al-Khabi' a (2002) 60 Benjamin Koerber DIVINE LOVE 4 Satan as the Lover of God in Islamic Mystical Writings 85 Ali-Asghar Seyed-Gohrab 5 Reverence for the Beloved as a Religious Metaphor: A Study of Raja'a ~lim's Hubbi; (The Beloved) 102 Miral Mahgoub al- Tahawy GENDER AND LOVE 6 Individualism and the Beloved in the Poetry of Purugh Farrukhzad Dylan Oehler-Stricklin vii 133 Contents zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUT 7 Making Love through Scholarship in Tamil Buthayna 155zyxwvutsr Richard Serrano 8 Iahan Malik Khatim: Gender, Canon, and Persona in the Poems of a Premodern Persian Princess 177 Domenico Ingenito EROTIC LOVE 9 Pleasing the Beloved: Sex and True Love in a Medieval Arabic Erotic Compendium 215 Pernilla MyrnezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQP 10 Love and Lust in the Early Islamic Republic: Arnir Hassan Cheheltan's Revolution Street 237 Paul Sprachman 11 Tempting the Theologian: The "Cure" of Wine's Seduction 248 Christine N. Kalleeny DIALECTICAL LOVE 12 Lovers in the Age of the Beloveds: Classical Ottoman Divan Literature and the Dialectical Tradition 285 Mehmet KarabelazyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQP 13 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic: Understanding the Subconscious Meaning Preserved in the Hubb Synonyms and Antonyms through Their Etymologies 300zyxwvutsr A.z. Obiedat Appendix I 324 Appendix II 330 Appendix III 333 Index 338 viii 13 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic: Understanding the Subconscious H ubb Synonyms Meaning Preserved in the zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWV and Antonyms through Their Etymologies zyxwvutsrqpon A.Z. O biedat zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXW Abstract: Unlike literary, religious, or philosophical approaches to the definition of love, this chapter attempts to bring attention to the importance of the semantic analysis for understanding love and the beloved in the Arabic language. It argues that mapping out the etymology of the h-b-b root, the semantic network established by its antonyms and synonyms, and the resulting hierarchy offers significant insights into the cognitive and emotional content of the notions of "love" and "beloved" in Arabic. One of this study's findings is that the semantic field of "love" is a spectrum with two edges, both of which have several levels. Furthermore, love as a phenomenon Arabic treats with 14 complex stages, starting with inclination, leading to growth and proliferation, and ending with losing one's mind or sacrificing oneself for the sake of the beloved. It is worth noting that the ratio between the morphological derivations of "lover" and "beloved" is five to four, possibly because love is an active emotion taken wholeheartedly and thus mostly on the side of the lover, not the beloved. Just as love resembles the attraction between electric charges, on the hatred spectrum the central idea of the "love" antonyms is the repulsion between one person 300 The Semantic Field of love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihg and another. Hate behaves in the opposite direction: the anti-love semantic field starts with mere disinterest towards the other, then moves to stronger negative feelings, and finally the strongest words shift to active intentions to harm the hated one. The common idea in this spectrum is that love leads to multiplying existence while hate ends with annihilation.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfed 1. Introduction' Due to the internal logic of English morphology, mutual relationship "the beloved" is in a with "the lover"; both nouns are derived from the "love" verb, which has as its antonym, the "hate" verb. This is one of the ways an English semantician would initiate the analysis of the notion of the beloved. The goal here, for which I need to present a short justification, is to apply the same semantic analysis to Arabic. The phenomenon of human writing generally aims at expressing thoughts and feelings and reporting events for the purposes of communication. However, writing eventually functions as a historical record of the thoughts, feelings, and events encoded in its words and sentences. Arabic literatures, in other words, embody these thoughts, feelings, and events as people perceived them or hoped they had occurred; insofar as they record the meanings of particular notions and their varied usages, lexicons function as literary building blocks, historical documents, and conceptual repositories. Thus, if particular meanings are repeatedly preserved in specific lexicons and are assigned both antonyms and synonyms, then these ones cover a large scope of meaning. This tripartite relationship between a lexicon and its antonyms and synonyms leads to the expansion and multiplication of meaning. So, once a lexicon of this type is commu- nicated, it gets associated with its antonyms and synonyms in the mind of the recipient. Between a lexicon, its antonyms, and its synonyms lies a horizontal field, which is described in this paper as a "semantic field." In addition, the plenitude of a lexicon's synonyms can lead to the existence of a vertical dimension in which meanings can depart from those contained in the original lexicon. Therefore, a semantic field can be composed of several horizontal semantic fields on top of each other forming layers that together constitute the larger semantic space of a lexicon. The task here will be to investigate the semantic variety that exists in relation to the wordszyxwvuts 301 The Beloved in Middle Eastern literatures "love" and "beloved" in Arabic lexicons. Comparing the morphological and semantic variations of "love" and "hate" will lead to a greater understanding of the somatic and affective levels of these emotions for Arabs. Moreover, it will demonstrate their awareness of the liminality and fluidity of such paradoxical emotions, contrary to stereotypical approaches to the so-called ''Arabic mind." Lexicons of all languages, with their formulated semantic fields and spaces, preserve cultural meaning in their early usages in a manner similar to historical relics worthy of archaeological investigation. Given these methodological premises, it is worth investigating how the recorded usages of the Arabic language in classical and modern dictionaries encode on etymological and morphological levels the cognitive and emotional content (whether literary or mundane) of the notions of "love" and "beloved." Canonical classical Arabic al-Addad, Ibn Faris' Mu'jam al- 'Arab, al-Zabidi's understanding dictionaries, Kitiib as Qutrub'szyxwvutsrqponmlkjih such Maqayts al-Lugha, Taj al- 'Arus, are invaluable Ibn Manzur's Lisiinzyxwvuts lexical resources for the literary citations and historical meaning of "love" and the peculiarity of "the beloved." This is why this chapter aims at investigating the semantic variety of the roots h-b-b, '-sh-q, t-y-m, h-w-a, s-b-b, and some 20 others. Mapping out these roots and the semantic network established by their antonyms, synonyms, and hierarchies should contribute to an understanding of both Arabic language and culture in their deep historical origins.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFED IJ-b-b and the Underlying 2. The Root zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Coherence of Its Different Usages In order to achieve a firmer semantic understanding of the concept of "love" in Arabic, etymological analysis must go beyond definitions that are based on psychological, social, literary, theological, or philosophical grounds. An example of a psychological definition of love is "an attachment to something where joy occurs in being close to the beloved and sadness from being away from him/her:') An example of a literary description is provided by Mu 'adh b. Sahl, who writes that love is "the hardest of all things to ride, the most intoxicating of drinks, the most discontinued thing of these sought after, the sweetest of things craved for, the most painful ofzyxwvuts 302 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihg stomach aches, and the most desired of what is declared [to the public],"! The Andalusian philosopher-mystic Ibn ~rabi, a monumental figure in the classical Arabic heritage for the scope and inventiveness of his discussions oflove, says that love occurs on three levels: '~zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSR natural love that is the love of the masses and its goal is animal union ... spiritual love that its goal is imitating the beloved and appreciating its value, and divine love that is the love of God for his servants and this is the love of the human to God'" In a similar line of thought, the highly polemical Andalusian literalist jurist Ibn Hazm affirms that love occurs in the heart by the way of compulsion, not choice.' These psychological, literary, theological, and philosophical descriptions and definitions are valuable, but the semantic method takes a different route to define meanings. The meanings that include "love" or its related synonyms are plentiful in Arabic. Let us start with a very common verbal noun for "love" in Arabic, hubb. Ibn Faris states that the combination of the radicals bii' and bii' (that is, babb and hubb) generally refers to three meanings: (1) "smallness in size"; (2) "shortness"; and (3) "fixation and perseverance:" An example of the first one is found in habb, which means "seeds," as in the case of grain seeds. The singular of habb is habba, which can be "a drop of water;' "a pellet of hail;' or "a white tooth." An example of the second, which is not as common as the first and third meanings, is babbiib. This refers to "a short man,"! An example of the third usage is the word hubb, referring to "love,"? Here it is quite difficult to grasp inferentially or intuitively the connection between the three usages of the radicals bii' and bii'. I propose the following suggestion as the connection between the three usages. Seeds are small, thus the metaphorical usage of the second meaning, since a short man can be imagined to be as small as a seed. As for the third meaning, love is considered analogous to the life of a seed. So, metaphorically, love can grow like a plant from a seed and can branch out like a tree by procreation. Yet all of this originates in an imperceptible intention in the heart as in an unseen seed under the surface of the ground. In short, the letters of thezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA h-b-b root preserve the notion that love is an invisible act of growth and proliferation. The unity of these usages appears in the verb ahabba, which literally means "he loves," while at the same time it suggests a wheat crop whose seeds have started to germinate." Interestingly, if habba is "a drop of water;' then hubb, the very word for love, al-Farahidl tells us, can mean 303 The Beloved in Middle Eastern literatures "a jar of water:' In this case,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJ hubb means "love" in the common usage, but also has been used to mean "a jar of water" at the same time. Clearly, a jar of water collects drops as love collects these related human emotions. Here, the verb habbaba is used when an animal quenches its thirst completely'! and the action ofzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA ibbab as in when the camel sets down." Quenching thirst is similar to the act of loving and an animal setting down is analogous to sexual intercourse. This variety of usages is for one trilateral root only, h-bb. Let us see how Arabic further expands on this root by creating a large field of derived verbs and nouns.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQ 3. The Derivational Variety of Love,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVU .llJubb' In this section, let us concentrate further on the root h-b-b when it primar- It is imporily means "to love." This will generate a large field of meanings.zyxwvutsrqponm tant to note that Arabic generally uses ten basic verbal forms for every trilateral root. This mechanism allows us to express nearly ten dimensions of meaning for any action in a single verb rather than adding more words to the verb itself. For historical and pragmatic reasons, some of the roots do not have an actual meaning for all of the ten forms. Within Arabic phonotactic restrictions, however, derivation and coinage are open possibilities, which has helped to keep Arabic alive for some 17 centuries, if not more. These ten verbal forms and their basic meanings are listed below." Fa'ala "To act" :J..i .1 Fa''ala "To act with intensity" :~.2 "To interact with something or someone else" Fa'ala :JC.lI.3 Af'ala "To act on someone or something (transitive)" :Jdl,4 Tafa''ala "To act on oneself with intensity (reflexive) :~.5 Tafa'ala "To mutually interact (reflexive)" :JC.ili .6 Infa'ala "To react or act on oneself (passive in meaning but not in :~'.7 form)" Ifta'ala "To overact or create an action (reflexive of form one :~'.8 above)" If'alla "To change in color or essence" :.Ja.i~.9 Istaf'ala "To seek an action or transform one's essence" :J;.lL~.10 The point to recognize behind this morphological structure of the basic verbal forms is that Arabic presumes that: (1) the direction of the verbzyxwvutsr 304 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihg goes to oneself, another, or is in mutual relationship; and (2) the intensity of these directions comes in degrees, from light to intense actions. In other words, verbs have directions and degrees that can be expressed in one single verbal form rather than a lengthy expression. For example, the istansara, as modeled on the tenth form istaf'ala, means "he sought to verbzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA transform his form or essence into an eagle;' implying that he is becoming courageous. Here, istansara conveys all these meanings in a single word. This is an important aspect of Arabic's capacity for brevity. However, this makes verbatim translation difficult since the meaning is very condensed and needs further explanation. Let us now apply the general meaning of the ten basic verbal forms above to the trilateral root of our concern, h-b-b. For this task, it is neces- sary to flesh out the trilateral rootzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONM h-b-b in the morphological structure of the ten verbal forms and see the semantic field they constitute: To love, habba :y"..1 To make an effort to make someone love someone else or something, :~ .2 babbaba To engage in affection (hugging and kissing), bababa :~6. .3 To love someone or something with intensity, ahabba :y".! .4 To express actions that show love faithfully or hypocritically, :'. 1~1:'1 .5 tahabbaba To engage in mutual affection (hugging and kissing) faithfully or :~W .6 hypocritically, tahababa To change one's relation to others by being loved by someone, :~! .7 inhabba Ihtabba is not used from the root b-b-b but from b-b-a :~! .8 Not used since the verb is transitive, ihbabba :.:,..;....! .9 To seek to love someone, something, or mostly an idea, istahabba :~! .10 Clearly, these ten morphological forms (or eight actually existing usages) provide us with an important account of eight dimensions of "love" actions in Arabic. Here, Arabic recognizes: (1) the direction oflove to oneself, to another, or reciprocally and (2) the degree of intensity and truthfulness of these directions. There might be additional ways of performing, expressing, and faking love on top of these eight possibilities but that is another discussion outside the scope of the present discussion.zyxwvutsrqponmlkji 305 The Beloved in Middle Eastern literatures zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe Let us now turn to how the nouns denoting "lover" and "beloved" are formulated beyond the ten verbal forms. There is a historical debate in the Arabic grammatical tradition as to whether the noun or the verb is the original form." There is no space to reproduce the arguments for both views here, but in this paper I presume that the verb form of "love" is the origin for all noun forms of "love," such as "lover" and "beloved." The reason for this choice should be clear after seeing the derivational procedure below. Again, the basic verbal forms provide us with a platform for deriving the nouns for "lover" and "beloved" through the derivation of the active participle and the passive participle. These morphological nominal Ism al-Fa 'il, "the noun of the doer," and Ism ai-Marui, patterns are calledzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA "the noun of the object." Arabic assigns each of the two nouns to the ten b-b-b. verbal forms leading to 20 active and passive participles for the rootzyxwvutsrqponm Not all of these 20 nouns happen to be used. However, they are still open for usage from a derivational point of view as illustrated below (the under- lined nouns are ones that occur commonly in Arabic):zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfed (Passive Participle) - Is m Is m a l-M a f'iil zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE a l-F a 'i/ (Active Participle) - Verb mahbub ~ babbY6. habba :~.l The noun of the doer is not commonly used," but the noun of the object is used and it means "beloved." muhbbab ~ muhabbib ± habbaba :~ .2 The noun of the doer refers to the one who makes an effort to make someone love someone else or something. For the second noun, it means the recipient of this kind of action (i.e., the beloved}. muhabab ~w. muhabib ~w. bababa :~6. .3 The noun of the doer refers to the one who engages in affectionate behavior (e.g., hugging and kissing}. The second noun refers to the recipient of this kind of action. Neither noun is commonly used. muhabb ~ muhibb ~ ahabba :~1.4 The noun of the doer refers to the one who loves someone or something with intensity. The second noun refers to the recipient of that sort of action, but is not commonly used.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONM 306 The Semantic mutahabbab Field of love in Classical Arabiczyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe ~ muthabbib ~ tahabbaba :~ .5 The noun of the doer refers to the one who performs actions that show love faithfully or hypocritically. The second noun refers to the recipient of that sort of action. mutahabab ~~ mutahabib .....,.~ tahababa :~W .6 The noun of the doer refers to the one who engages in mutual affection (hugging and kissing) faithfully or hypocritically. The second noun refers to the recipient of this kind of action, but is not commonly used. munhabb ~ munhibb ~ inhabba :y;J! .7 The noun of the object refers to the one who changes one's relation to others by being loved by someone, while the first noun is that of the doer of this action. Given the reflexive nature of this form, the boundary between the doer and the object is erased. Both meanings are hard to conceive; hence neither is used. ihtabba :~! .8 Not used since the verb is transitive ::,..;.....! .9 mustahibb ~ istahabba :~! .10 Not used from the root b-b-b but from the root h-b-t; ihbabba mustahabb ~ The noun of the doer refers to the one who seeks to love someone, something, or an idea. The second noun refers to the recipient of that sort of action. One takeaway of this morphological presentation is that the ten basic verbal forms can, in principle, generate 20 nouns of the doer and object, though not all are used. In fact, only the nine nouns which are underlined above Occur with any frequency in Arabic. Six of these nouns are related both to the doer of the actions of love and to the beloved. Moreover, only one noun, that is, mahbub, signifies the recipient of such actions without an equivalent for the doer. In other words, out of the nine verbal forms expressing the directions and intensities of love, only three verbs have full active participles and passive participles. These are the second, fifth, and tenth forms, as in the following: • One who causes love to happen to himself or between others (~ , .zyxwvut m Ubabbib). The beloved is the one who receives love with intensity, that is, with effort (~, muhabbabi.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQP 307 The Beloved in Middle Eastern Literatures zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe • One who expresses actions that show love faithfully or hypo critically ('.·i;~~, mutahabbib), zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA The beloved here is the one who is loved faithfully mutahabbab ilayhi). or hypocritically ("-:Ill'.'i;~~, • One who seeks love consciously, by contrast with unconscio us love (~, mustahibb). The beloved here is that person or thing loved consciously (.:,...;..w, mustahabbi. The remaining four verbal dimensions that express other varieties of the "love" verbs (forms three, seven, eight, and nine) have no commonly used active participles or passive participles. Some other verbal forms generate a derivation for the noun of the doer but without the noun of the object, like forms four and six: the lover (~mubibb) and mutahiibib), Only the first form is dedithe mutual love seeker (~~, cated to express a simple notion of the beloved (y.",.-, mahbub). Arabic does not derive the active participle (y~, babb) from that first and most simple form, perhaps because Arabs see that the simple act of love does not happen without intensity. In this vein, love that happens intentionally and at will needs to be derived from other forms that signify stronger active will or further intensity. Indeed, it is quite astonishing that Arabs derived more nouns that implied intensity and directions! states for lovers than they did for the beloveds. The ratio is five types of lovers to four types of beloveds. The reason for this, I contend, is that love is an emotion felt wholeheartedly and thus mostly on the side of the doer, not the recipient. In other words, one can observe the lover's intention in pursuit of love but not that of the beloved. This might be the rationale why the lover has more derivations than the beloved in this chart. The derivation of Arabic nouns is not limited to the two nouns of the doer and the object. There are other types of derivations such as $ighat al-mubalagha and al-sifah al-mushabbahah. In other words, by using other derivational means one can make up for the shortage of derivations for the beloved as a passive participle. This is why bibb, hubiib, hibban, and habib all refer to the beloved.16 The differencesin meaning among them are relativelyminor. These explanations about the nominal derivations for the rootzyxwvutsrqponm h-b-b root are not stated explicitly in the dictionaries; rather, they are impliedzyxwvuts 308 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihg by the morphological logic of derivation. The semantic analyst must make explicit the logic behind deriving the varieties of lover and beloved. Language itself is silent about the cognitive or contextual operations that generate meaning, so the task of semanticians is to speak amidst this silence. We have seen quite a wide variety of usage and derivation of thezyxwvutsrq b-b-b root. We can now expand this investigation for the conception oflove in other roots.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 4. The Synonym s of "Love" Surveying several modern dictionaries such aszyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWV al-Munjid by al-Yasu'l or al-Mu'jam al- Wasi!; and several classical ones such as Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha by Ibn Faris and Lisan al-i\rab by Ibn Manzur, a plethora of suggestions concerning the synonyms of the "love" lexicon - albeit without strong consensus or substantial enumeration found. I? Not surprisingly, the most comprehensive of synonyms - can be list of the "love" syno- nyms found is offered by the classical Andalusian lexicographer Ibn Sida in his thematic lexicography al-Mukhassas, which entails a comparative cross-referencing to older dictionaries. IS Interestingly, the "love" field is listed by Ibn Sida not under, hubb, but rather under the more poetic word 'ishq, "extreme love:'19Conversely, there is near consensus for the antonym of the hubb word. AI- Farahldl points out that bugnd, "hate," is the antonym of "love."2oBefore getting into the issue of antonyms, let us proceed carefully and with a prelude. First, the notion oflove considered here is that which in Arabic generally refers to the relationship between a man and a woman of maturity on the psychological, not the physical, level. This is why the compassion of the mother-child relationship or the friendliness of market transactions between buyer and seller is excluded from our analysis of the words synonymous with love. Although highly relevant, expressions of lust, seduction, and physical intimacy that may occur without love are not considered here as direct synonyms of "love." Love can indeed be related to both friendship and lust, but why not include equally relevant notions such as brotherhood, motherhood, and worship? If we do not set these limitations, then we will end up with massive and diverse semantic fields that will hurl us into infinite regress and distract the proposed investigation. Needless to 309 The Beloved in Middle Eastern Literatures zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe say, love is so central to human affairs that studying it thoroughly will pull up the totality of the web of human life itself, something for which we do not have space in this chapter. For the same reason, the Arabic verbzyxwvutsrq raghiba, "to desire:' which is close to the verb "to love:' was excluded from the list of synonyms for "love." Second, we need to map out the synonyms of the "love" word by arranging the following hierarchy based on elevations in the degree of love, followed by suggested translations and a hint on the relation to the etymology. This hierarchical arrangement of the increased degrees oflove is solely mine and many readers might disagree. This is why the reader is invited to contemplate these meanings based on their specific roots first, and then some inferences and an explanation for this hierarchy will be presented. I attempt here to provide literal translations to be close to the entries provided in the dictionaries. Arabic English How the Root Is Utilized to Generate This Common Usage Metaphorically 1. Hawa Passion hawa, inclination towards something or someone. It originally refers to haws', "air," and in relation to this void, hawa becomes "falling in the hole." This makes it clear why the second sense of hawii refers to falling into the passions of the psyche. Hawa in this context refers also to falling in love where that notion of falling carries the negative connotation of falling into evil, a trap, or a predicament, which is not easy to escape." The implication here is that one should not approach an act ofzyxwvutsr haw ii as it leads to a fall. wadda, expressing the wish to get close to 2. Wudd Friendliness 3. /fubb Love ahabba, a psychological state similar to a Passionate love shaghafa, the skin of the heart similar to wholehearted love."zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcb or to love someone." hidden seed that grows and proliferates. 4. Shaghaf 310 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihg Arabic English How the Root Is Utilized to Generate This Common Usage Metaphoricallyzyxwvutsrqponmlkj 5. $abiiba Strong love tasabbaba, spilling the essence of one's heart, that is, emotions, onto someone, symbolizing deep faithfulness in 10ve.24 6. 'Ishq Extreme love 'ashiqa, the quality of being inseparable Obsessive love tawallu, a psychological state resem- from another object (here, the beloved)." 7. Wala' bling catching fire or the pathogenic skin 8. Gharam Fondness discoloration." ghruma, the inescapable worry of indebt-zyxwvutsrq edness that is similar to being preoccupied by loving someone all times." 9. Huyiim Intense love hiima, a psychological state similar to a camel's thirstiness which is an extreme feeling given how long the camel can go without water in the hot and dry desert." 10. Taym Extreme love 11. Walah Lost in love waliha, a psychological state resembling 12. Jawii Burning love jawii or ijtawa, a psychological state similar tatayyama, a psychological state similar to losing one's mind as being lost in the desert." losing something (here, one's mind)." to feeling a stomach ache or acid burn." 13. Fitna32 Burning love iftutina or infatana, a psychological state similar to the process by which gold is smelted in the furnace." 14. T awq34 Longing love taqa, fighting one's psyche for the sake of the beloved to the extent of sacrifice." The common word for love, hubb, by no means denotes the highest level of love. Hubb - and its higher forms expressed in shaghaf, sababa, and 'ishq - lies between the two extremes in the list above (i.e., the weakest being the first and the second stages of love on the one hand and the thirteenth and fourteenth extreme stages of love on the other). In other words, the etymological roots and conceptual traces contained in these vocabularieszyxwvuts 311 The Beloved in Middle Eastern literatures show that Arabic treats love as several complex stages starting with inclination and ending with losing one's mind or self-sacrifice. However, these actions go through several transformations. They are reflected in an invisible act of growth and proliferation that might transform into wholehearted love and spilling one's heart out in trust and feeling inseparable from the beloved. These transformations are the ones that have no danger. In the case of taking forms other than the ones described, this love is either in the weak or dangerous forms. A possibly clearer perception to the synonyms of "love" would involve ranking these 14 levels of love in a curve where love climbs in six steps and reaches its peak, then declines from steps seven to 14.36 Increase in positive love - Increase in negative love or decline in positive connotationszyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 7. Wala' 6. 'Ishq 8. Gharam S.SababazyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 9. Huyam '4. Shaghaj 10. Taym 3. Hubb 11. Walah 2. Wudd 12. lawa 1. Hawa 13. Fitna 14. Taw q Again, the common word for love, hubb, is by no means the lowest level of love. Lower levels of love start by showing an inclination to someone (haw a), moving then to the level of expressing love (w udd). This situation might in turn lead to hubb, that is, fruitful intention leading to growth or increase. After this third stage ihubb), there are only three higher stages of love that are without negative connotations. These are the act of whole- hearted love (shaghaj), the act of spilling the blood of one's heart ($ababa); and being inseparable from the beloved ('ishq). The last word happens to be the common expression of love used by the mystics in order to signify love to God and love from God, al- 'ishq al-ilahi.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedc It is equally important to recognize that these conceptual registers in the string of the seventh through fourteenth word conceal connotations that imply bodily harm. Although poets, mystics, and storytellers equally celebrate these lexemes in the classical and modern literatures, the original roots indicate condemnation, warning, and advice. This criticism is not explicit since these lexemes reflect strong love in the literatures. Thezyxwvut 312 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihg connotation is evidently preserved in the original root meaning that was used by the Arabic speaker for usages irrelevant to love. In particular, the Arabic speaker had in mind that love can be similar to: (7) being attacked (wala'); (8) bearing the pain of indebtedness skin diseasezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE (ghariim); (9) being lost and extremely thirsty (huyiim); (10) losing one's way in the desert (taym); (11) losing one's mind (walah); (12) suffering the stomach burning (jawii); (13) suffering the burning of smelting (fitna); and (14) an internal struggle leading to sacrificing oneself (tawq). by pathogenic Obviously these cases of strong, intense, and excessive lexical understandings oflove are associated with dangerous scenarios where the early Arab speaker could consciously perceive the negativity of these emotional predicaments. Early Arabs perceived the danger of losing oneself in love in the works of poet-lovers such as Tamil Buthayna and Majnun Layla. As lexical usage evolved, literary figures used these strong lexemes unconsciously to express intense cases oflove. However, few of the mod- ern Arabic users of these intense "love" words would worry about these connotations. In line with our search for love's variety of meanings, we are now in a better position to speak about "the beloved:' The following list provides the derivations to all the nouns of object or passive participles (ism al-maf'id; to the hubb synonyms. Love Synonyms Derived Passive Possible Translation Participle 1. Hawa 2. Wadda Ahabba 4. Shaghafa 5. Tasabbaba 3. mahwifi mawdud mahbub mashgufbi mutasabbab fi The recipient of passion The befriendedzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQ The beloved The recipient of passionate love The beloved strongly (but the sabb derivation for both the lover and beloved is more common) 'Ashiqa Tawalla' 8. Ghruma 9. Htima 6. 7. ma'shuq mutawallu'fi maghrum bi mahimfi The extremely beloved one The obsessively beloved one The recipient of fondness The intensely beloved onezyxwvutsrqponmlkji 313 The Beloved in Middle Eastern Literatures zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe Love Synonyms Derived Passive Possible Translation ParticiplezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE 10. Tatayyama 11. Waliha 12. Ijtawa mutatayym bi mawlidi mujtawa The extremely revered beloved The one being lost in his/her love The one being burnt internally for his/ her love (not commonly used) 13. Iftutina muftatan The one being burnt externally for his/ her love (but the maftan derivation is more common) 14. Taqa matuo ila The longed-for to the extent of sacrificezyxwvutsrq Here, what is said about the verbal levels of love is directly implied in the passive participle. This is why conceiving the beloved would involve ranking these 14 levels of "beloveds" in a curve where the beloved's stature climbs in six steps and reaches its peak, then declines from seven to 14.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe 5. The Antonym s of "Love" Unfortunately, several important classical references on antonyms such as Qutrubs Kitab al-A(idad and Ibn al-Anbari's Mu'jam al-A#ad were of no help in determining the antonyms of the "love" words." This is why I had to construct these by tracing the antonyms of the "love" words' synonyms individually and by tracing synonyms of "hate:' First, the notion of a "love" antonym discussed here is one that refers to intentions and emotions of hatred in most, if not all, of its degrees. Acts of violence are more than emotional hatred. This is why "animosity;' which could be associated with physical violence, is not considered a synonym of "hatred" and thus not a direct antonym of "love." Also, intentions that do not imply hatred in any sense, such as 'azafa 'an (shying away from someone), or naa 'an (staying away from someone), are not considered here as antonyms of "love." The "love" antonyms surveyed here are the following: 'ayaf, majaj, inkar; sakhat, shanaan, kurh, bughd, maqt, hiqd, (laghina. naqama, qila. and ghill. Such arrangement is solely mine and many readers might object to such a hierarchy. The reader is invited to contemplate these meanings mainly based on their root as some inferences will be presented with an explanation for the hierarchy.zyxwvutsrqponm 314 Arabic English How the Root is Utilized to Generate This Metaphorical Usage 1.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 'Ayaf 'Afa, a psychological state resembling the Distaste reaction of disgust to a food, later utilized for all kinds of dislike." 2. Majaj Distaste Majja, a psychological state resembling the reaction to disliking a drink and spitting it out, later utilized for all kinds of 3. Inkar Repugnance dislike." Nakar or Ankara, a verb with a vast variety of seemingly unrelated meanings. The simplest form, nakir, refers to an alert person. Yet munkar is an ugly thing or a customarily and religiously unacceptable behavior. The connection could be that an alert man is aware of faulty things and bad actions. A third derivational variety is ankara, which refers to denial or hiding knowledge that can be associated with tanakkur, that is, hiding the truth of one's identity or feelings. In both cases, the person here is aware of the ugliness or faultiness, but he/she is hiding that fact. At least in thezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZY m unkar form it means "repugnance," which is relevant to hate." 4. Sakhat Abhorrence Sakhita; rankle that develops into hatred towards a property of something or someone,"zyxwvutsrq 5. Shanaan Hate Shanaa, a psychological state derived from disgust or seeing an ugly face, all of which amounts to dislike." 6. Kurh Hatred Kariha, physical resistance, hardship, and being forced into a bad situation, especially war," 7. Bught;i Loathing Abghat;ia, the feeling of hatred (uniquely, this word is without an earlier stated use in the dictionaries consulted)." Arabic English How the Root is Utilized to Generate This Metaphorical Usagezyxwvutsrqpo 8. MaqtzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Resentment Maqata, the strongest level ofhatred." 9. lfiqd Vengefulness" Haqada, a psychological state resem- 10. Daghina 11. Naqama Vengefulness Vengeful resentment 12. Qilii Strong hatred 13. Ghill Satisfying revenge bling a mine hiding its minerals or clouds holding back rain, which are metaphors for concealing hatred and waiting for opportunities for revenge," Daghana, an act of covering the two sides of one's open cloak around one's belly and hiding one's weapon under the arm or a psychological state resembling an animal that refuses to go straight after being whipped. These usages are the origins of the metaphors for hiding hatred and waiting for opportunities for revenge." Naqama, to reject, hate, or punish due to a former grudge." Qalii, a psychological state resembling the harsh treatment or whipping of a stubborn camel. The verb became more commonly associated with the strong treatment of meat and legumes by frying in a pan. In both cases, the metaphor came to mean the strong treatment of something or someone in reaction to 50 objectionable properties.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe Ghalla, a psychological state of being thirsty for revenge, resembling heat felt in the throat when seeking to quench one's thirst. This hate is felt in the lead-up to acts of violence. 51zyxwvutsrqponm The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjih kurh, is by no means the highest or The common antonym for "love,"zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONM the lowest level of hate. Just as love resembles an attraction between electric charges, the central theme in the "love" antonyms is repulsion between one person and someone or something else. We may divide this semantic field of "repulsion" into three levels based on the increasing intensity of repulsion. In the first level, the first three words show disinterest in someone or something else. In this line, (1) 'ayaf and (2) majaj indicate distaste for someone, while (3) munkar finds ugliness or unacceptable behavior in that person. On this level, the focus is on the objectionable aspects of the thing disliked, which leave an ephemeral residue in the memory of the person feeling repulsion. In other words, the hating one is not here the active agent. It is rather the repulsion-causing properties that are the focus. In the second level of the "hate" semantic field, however, the focus is on the self that has strong and memorable negative feelings about someone or something else. The memory here is alert and engaged in its repulsion beforehand, even before the other aggressively acts. In this line, (4) sakhat leads to hating a property; (5) shanaan is disgust that is associated with hate; (6) kurh is a hatred that resembles bodily agitation; (7) bugh(i is loathing; and, finally, (8) maqt is said by Ibn Faris to be revenge and torture, while Ibn Manzur says it is punishment." On the third level, attention shifts from the act of repulsion in the ephemeral or engaged manners to the intention to seek to harm the hated one. In other words, this is not a matter of avoidance but rather of desiring to hurt the other or one of his or her hated properties. On this highest level of hatred,zyxwvut (9) hiqd and (10) daghina share the sense of concealing hatred and waiting for opportunities for revenge. Yet (11) naqama takes the feeling further, to an explicit hate that seeks to punish. Finally, (12) qila is hate that leads to strong treatment of something and (13) ghill is that strong hate in which the self is thirsty for revenge like the body thirsty for water. In line with our search for love and the beloved, we are now in a better position to speak about "the hated one" in contrast to "the beloved." The following lists all the past participles (ism al-maf'id) from the "love" antonyms.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE 317 The Beloved in Middle Eastern literatures Hate Verb Derived Passive Participle Possible Translation ma'ifmin 1.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA The disliked one 'Aya! 2. 3. 4. S. 6. 7. 8. MajajzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA m am jii] The distasteful one lnkar munkar The repugnant one Sakhat maskhut 'ala The abhorred one Shanaan mashna' The hated one makruh Kurh The hated one Bughd mabghud The loathed one Maqt mamqat The hated one in the strongest level of hatred 9. Hiqd mahqad 'ala The one targeted by vengefulness 10. l)aghina 11. Naqama 12. Qila 13. Ghill madgun manqam min maqli maghlul The one targeted by vengefulness The one targeted by vengeful resentment The one targeted by strong hatred The one targeted by satisfying revenge What has been said about the three verbal levels of "hate" synonyms is directly implied in the derived nouns of passive participles. On the first (1-3) reflect the one or thing that is the level, the nouns of the objectzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQ subject of disinterest. On the second level (4-8), however, the focus is on the hated one that left strong and memorable negative feelings. On the third level (9-13), the attention shifts from that object of repulsion in the ephemeral or engaged manners to the one against whom harm is intended. These three stages of hate move from the shunned one, to the one who is memorably hated, and finally to the hated one upon whom ill is wished. If the first list or field of Arabic etymological and conceptual relationships presented above shows that Arabic sees love as 14 complex stages spanning inclination, growth and proliferation, and ultimately losing one's mind or self-sacrifice, then hate behaves in the opposite direction. In particular, the semantic field of "hate" starts with mere disinterest caused by the other, moves to negative memorable feelings about someone, and finally shifts to an active intention to harm the hated person. It is worth noting that where love is distinguished by fruitfulness or proliferation, hate is characterized by its negativity and destructiveness. 318 Love, in the benignzyxwvutsr The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjih forms, leads to multiplying existence by proliferation while hate ends with annihilation. Love can start with mere inclination, leading to fruitfulness, and end with self-sacrifice. Hence, love ascends and descends. Yet, hate only descends into destruction, for Arabs did not see any good in hate. Jean-Paul Sartre may have been surprised to learn that Arabic had already contemplated Being and Nothingness, where love the major theme of hiszyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPON leads to being and hate to nothingness." Love sometimes carries its own negation in itself, in its extreme form, and it can easily turn to hate. Oddly enough, the word in its evolutionary journey might end up to mean its opposite! An example here is the word,zyxwvut jaw a, which can mean both "love" and "hate." Most of the words derived from the root j-w -a refer to hate; however, one usage is assigned to love! This leads one to speculate that there is a connection between these contradictory meanings. This connection, I suggest, is when the lover becomes sick of the troubles associated with love and longing for the beloved to the extent that love brings hatred upon itself. In other words, the lover hates how love consumes him or her - which, in due time, leads to hatred. This is not a rare psychological phenomenon, nor is it surprising that a word should signify such a paradoxical feeling. Here,jawa is the word of choice that succeeds in crossing the barrier between love and hate, articulating the liminality and confluence of these two emotions.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZY N otes 1. I am grateful to Professor Ramzi Baalbaki, Margaret Weyerhaeuser Jewett, Chair of Arabic at the American University of Beirut, and Dr Nart Qakhun of Al al-Bayt University in Jordan for kindly reading an earlier draft ofthis chapter. Their wide knowledge, deep insights, and sharp corrections were extremely valuable. 2. Raphael Patai states "We exaggerate in both love and hate. We are emotional rather than coldlyanalytical."Raphael Patai, The Arab Mind (New York:Scribner, 1983).52. 3. Muhammad Sa'id Ramadan al-Butl, al-Hubb fi al-Quriin wa Dawr al-Hubb fi Hayat al-Insan (Damascus: Dar al-Pikr, 2009), 18. 4. Ahmad Taymur Basha, al-Hubb 'ind al-'Arab (Susa, Tunisia: Dar al-Ma'arif li al- Tiba'a wa al-Nashr, 1993), 13. 5. Rafiq al-Ajam, Mawsuat M~!alabtit al-Tasawwuj al-Islami (Beirut: Maktabat Lubnan, 1999),275.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLK 319 The Beloved in Middle Eastern literatures 6. This is a paraphrasing from Zakariyya Ibrahim,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXW Mushkilat al-Hubb (Cairo: Maktabat Misr, 1969), 268. The original statement is "you give away yourself not by choice but by the compulsion of [love)': In Ibn Hazm, al-Hamama (Cairo: Mu'assasat Hindawi, 2014), 61. Tawq 7. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha (Cairo: Dar Il)ya' al-Kutub al- 'Arabiyya, 1946), 2:26. 8. Ibid., 2:28. 9. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al- 'Arab (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif n.d.), 10:745. 10. Majrna' al-Lugha al- 'Arabi bi al-Qahira, Al-Mu'jam Maktabat al-Shuruq al-Dawliyya, 2004),150. aI-WasIl, 4th ed. (Cairo: 11. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif n.d.), Vol. 10,746. 12. Ibid., 10:746, 10:744. 13. Some of these definitions are inspired by a summary of the ten verbal forms made available by the Academic Consortium Charlottesville, Virginia, in 2012. of Global Education (ACGE) in 14. Ibn al-Anbari, al-InsafzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPON fi Masa'il al-Khilaf bayna al-Basriyyin wa al-Kufiyyin (Cairo: Maktabat al-Khanji, 2002),192-201. 15. Habb does not exist as derived from love (b-b-b), but it does exist when it is derived from the verb baba to mean "an arrow that misses its target." 16. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab, 10:744, 10:746. 17. Rafa'il Nabla al- Yasu'i, al-Munjid fi al-Mutaradifat wa al-Mutajanisat (Beirut: Dar al-Mashriq, 1986) 36; Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab, 10:742. 18. Ibn Sidah al-Nahwi al-Andalusi, al-Mukhassas (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al'Ilmiyya, 2005), 4:59-63. 19. Unfortunately, al-Iahiz in a section entitled "The Types of Love" did not offer a sufficient numeration of the love synonyms. Abu 'Uthman ~mr b. Bahr al-Iahiz, Rasa'il al-Jahi+ (Beirut: Dar wa Maktabat al-Hilal, 2002), 3:93. 20. "I loved him, ahbabtuh, is the opposite ofI hated him, abghadtuh;" ai-Khalil b. Ahmad al-Farahidl, Kitab al-'Ayn Murattaban i\la /furuJ al-Mu'jam (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya, 2003), 1:277. ~bd al-Malik Qarib al-Asma'i adds that hiqd is an antonym of "love." Ma IkhtalaJat Alfa;uh wa IttaJaqat Ma 'anih (Damascus: Dar al-Pikr, 1985),55. 21. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab, 51:4728 and Ibn Faris, Mu'jam 6:15-16. Maqayts al-Lugha, 22. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha; 6:75. 23. Ibn Manziir, Lisan al-'Arab, 26:2285. 24. The noun $abb is used as an equivalent to the "beloved" and the verbal noun $ababa as a verbal noun, ma$dar, for "love." Yet the verb tQ$abbaba is mostly used in relation to the root that is the action of pouring a liqUid. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha, 3:281. 25. Ibn Man:j!:ur,Lisan al-'Arab, 33:2958. Ibn Faris notes also that 'ishq is "exceeding the stage oflove." Mu 'jam Maqayis al-Lugha, 4:321.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcb 320 The Semantic Field of Love in Classical Arabic zyxwvutsrqponmlkjih Lisan al-i\rab, 55:4916. 26. Ibn Manzur,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 27. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqilyis al-Lugha, 4:419. 28. Ibid., 6:26. 29. Ibn Manzur, Lisdn al-i\rab, 5:461. 30. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha, 6: 139-40. 31. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-i\rab, 9:734 and Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha. 1:491. Amazingly, this very word,jawa, which refers to love, can also refer to the opposite, hatred. So the verb jawaytu means "I hated." We can speculate that the ground that provides the foundation for both opposites is pain that can be generated by both love and hatred. For the "hatred" meaning, see Ibn Sidah al-Nahwi al-Andalusi, al-Mukhassas, 12:317-18. 32. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqilyis al-Lugha, 4:473. 33. It is true that fitna has been used to mean an "examination" of one's belief or intentions, but this is a metaphorical shift from the notion of examining ore by extracting the potential gold from it through the smelting process. A second metaphorical shift happens whenfitna means great social "sedition." Still, this is derived from the notion of burning or a social test of perseverance and rightfulness. These synonyms are listed in Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-Arab, 37:3344. 34. Abu al-Hasan 'Ali b. 'lsa al-Rummani, AI-Alfil+ al-Mutaradifatu al-Mutaqaribatu al-Ma 'na (al-Mansura, Egypt: Dar al-wata li al-Tiba'a wa al-Nashr, 1987), 7l, 84. 35. Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqilyis al-Lugha, 1:358. 36. Dr Nart Qakhun brought to my attention other synonyms for the "love" word that are less commonly used compared to the ones stated above, such as shajw, wamaq, khilla, tadilla, kalaf, and la 'aj. He helpfully noted that I forgot shaghaf and jawa, which I have now included in the list above. 37. Abu l\li Muhammad al-Ulum, h. al-Mustanir Qutrub, Kitab al-A#ad (Riyadh: Dar 1984), 155-61; 'lsa Hasan al-Iarajira, Tahdhib Mu'jam A(1dad Ibn al-Anbar! (Amman: Manshurat Arnanat l\mman al-Kubra, 2007), 273-303. 38. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-i\rab, 36:3193. 39. Ibid., 46:4136-7. 40. Ibid., 50:4539-40. 41. Ibid., 22: 1964. 42. Ibid., 27:2335-6. 43. Payruzbadi, al-Qamus al-Mubil (Damascus: Muassasat al-Risala, 2005), 1252; Majma' al-Lugha al-Arabi bi al-Qahira, AI-Mu'jam al- WaSil, 785; Ibn Faris, Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha, 5:172-3. 44. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-i\rab, 5:319-20. 45. Ibid., 48:4242. 46. Ibid., 12:938. 47. Ibid., 12:939. 48. Ibid., 92:2593.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIH 321 The Beloved in Middle Eastern Literatures zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedc Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha, 5:464. Also. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab. 49. Ibn Faris.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 50:4531. 50. Ibn Manzur, Lisiin al-Arab, 42:3731-2. 51. Ibid .•37:3285. 52. Ibn Faris. Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lugha; 5:464; Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab. 50:4531. 53. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness. trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Washington Square Press. 1965). This book has been translated into Arabic twice. by 'Abd al-Rahman Badawi as al- Wujud wa al-'Adam (Beirut: Dar al-Adab, 1966) and by Niqula Mattini as al-Kaynuna wa al-'Adam (Beirut: al-Munazzarna al-'Arabiyya Ii al-Tarjama, 2009).zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVU Bibliography al-Ajam, Rafiq. Mawsu'at MU~/alabat al-Tasawwuf al-Islami. Beirut: Maktabat Lubnan, 1999. al-Andalusl, Ibn Sldah al-Nahwi, al-Mukhassas. 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