Volume 2, Issue 12, December– 2017 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456 –2165

Learning Theories for Tertiary Education - A

Review of Theory, Application, and Best Practice
P. D. Talagala
Department of Computational Mathematics
University of Moratuwa
Sri Lanka

Abstract - Tertiary education is an important element in Promoting respect for things and people is also important as
economic and social development and a major it allows to create a positive and inclusive environment for
determinant of a university student’s career path. all the students in the community.
Learning theories describe how information is captured,
In this paper our focus is to bring together the findings and key
processed and stored during a learning process. Better
points from a review of literature associated with learning
understanding of learning theories is very important for
theories and how they can incorporate into tertiary education.
the university teachers to design their teaching process
This survey will provide a basis for a subsequent study to
and thereby create an environment that facilitate higher
examine the factors affecting on skills development in the
order thinking and deep learning. This review describes
tertiary educational setting.
different learning theories and their potential use in the
tertiary education context. II. LEARNING THEORIES
Keywords—Learning Theory; Tertiary Education; Learning Learning theories can be viewed as models or concepts that
Styles. describe how information is captured, processed and stored
during a learning process. According to Fernando (2014),
I. INTRODUCTION these learning theories can be basically divided to into 6
Every university student who gets an opportunity to enter to main categories called: behaviorism, cognitivism, social
the tertiary education is a unique individual with a great learning theory, social constructivism, multiple intelligence,
potential who needs mostly a kind of a stimulating brain-based learning.
environment to grow and develop intellectually, physically, A. Behaviorism
emotionally and socially. (i) A teacher who act as a guide;
(ii) making learning exciting and allowing the natural Both Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning and B. F.
curiosity of students to acquire knowledge and skills; and Skinner’s operant conditioning lay the foundation for this
(iii) promoting respect for things and people; are three key theory (Woolfolk 1995).
elements that are most helpful to establish such a learning a). Classical Conditioning
environment in tertiary education. Elaborating further, a
university student should be a knowledge hunter and a Under ‘Classical Conditioning’ the idea is to create a
teacher should be a guide who directs them to correct path conditioned response by manipulating unconditioned
instead of just being a primary source of information. As in stimulus and response with a conditioned stimulus. Ivon
the word of Albert Einstein, “Learning is an experience, Pavlov’s famous experiment further demonstrates the
everything else is just information”. Therefore, for students concept behind the theory of classical conditioning (or
to construct knowledge, they need the opportunity to responding conditioning). Every time Pavlov brought out
discover knowledge and practice skills by themselves. the dogs’ food he rang a bell. After doing this for a certain
Providing opportunities for students to get hands-on period of time, Pavlov rang the bell without presenting food.
experiences and allowing them to have adequate time and The dog then found to be salivated just from the sound of
space to master the learning materials allow them to achieve the bell. Figure 1 shows an example on how university
individual discovery and construction of their own teachers can incorporate Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning
knowledge and skills. It is also important to give the theory for their teaching process.
students an opportunity to study things that are meaningful According to McKeachie and Svinicki (2010), one method to
and relevant to their interests and career goals. encourage students’ participation is to create an expectation of
Understanding and developing appropriate teaching tools participation. It is a common known fact that students drive
and techniques around student interests also helps teachers from credits and marks. According to Davis (2009) “token
to motivate students for learning and discovering method” is a good strategy to encourage students’ active
knowledge. Further when students get ownership in their participation in in-class discussion. The idea is to award the
own learning, they are motivated to work hard and master student with a token for each and every active participation
the skills necessary to reach their learning goals. in in-class discussion. There can be students who are from
cultures whose norms discourage speaking in public. However

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this is one of the important skills the university students and also it is one of those skills develop better with feedback.
should develop before they enter to the work world. In many In-class discussion is one important tool that sharpens their
professional contexts they may need to to speak up in groups, ability in that aspect. Incorporating these type of rewarding
they may need to offer information, they may need to ask methods to teaching activities encourages students to actively
question or provide opinions for different solutions. Students participate in in-class discussions and thereby master these
cannot master these skills just by reading on how to do these skills.
things. It is one of those skills best developed with practice

Figure 1: An Example on How to Use Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory to Promote in-Class Discussions

b). Operant Conditioning A. Cognitive Domain

Under operant conditioning controlled response is given The cognitive domain by Bloom et al. (1956) is the most used
based on the behaviour. This response can be either a reward domain of the three domains where the primary focus is on the
or a punishment. (Woolfolk 1995). As shown in Figure 2 it is development of knowledge and intellectual skills. This includes
divided into four basic quadrants: positive reinforcement, recalling or recognizing information, procedural patterns and
negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative concepts that serve in the development of intellectual
punishment. abilities and skills (Clark 1999). According to Atherton
(2011), there are six major categories of cognitive processes
One can describe it as a learning technique that helps to starting from the simplest to the most complex called:
control or develop a behavior via reinforcement of stimulus- knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis
response patterns. Skinner’s experiments with pigeons by and evaluation.
rewarding them upon a desired behavior further helps us to
B. Affective Domain
understand this concept. Using this technique, he was able to
teach pigeons to dance and play bowling. In the same way, it The affective domain by Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia
is believed that humans develop their behaviors based on the (1964) describes how people deal with things emotionally
rewards or positive reinforcement they receive. If students such as values, appreciation, feelings, enthusiasms, attitudes
see that they are receiving positive reinforcement with the and motivations. The five major categories that come under
actions they are doing, it will encourage them to continue to do affective domain from the simplest behaviour to the most
the same actions and thereby allow them to develop a long complex are, receiving, responding, valuing, organizing and
lasting positive behaviors. conceptualizing; and characterizing by value or value
concept. According to Atherton (2011) the attention given
III. DOMAINS OF LEARNING for this domain is low and is less intuitive in comparison to
cognitive domain.
There are three main domains of learning called, (i)
cognitive: focus is on intellectual skills (knowledge) (ii) C. Psychomotor Domain
affective: focus is on the areas of feelings or emotions and The focus of psychomotor domain is on the areas such as
(iii) psycho- motors: focus is on the areas of physical and coordination, physical movement, and use of the motor-skill.
manual skills (skills). Practicing is the key element for the development of these
skills. Further these skills can be measured in terms of
precision, speed, distance, procedures, or techniques in

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execution. As summarized by Atherton (2011), the five skills until they achieve the lower level skills. According to
major categories that come from the simplest behavior to the Randall (2011), this divisions outlined are not absolutes and
most complex are called imitation, manipulation, precision, there are other systems or hierarchies that explain the
articulation and naturalization. development of these skills and knowledge and how to improve
them. However, Bloom’s taxonomy is easily understood and
Each of these three domains can be thought of as degrees of is probably the most widely used learning theorem.
difficulties. That is one cannot effectively address higher level

Figure 2: Examples on How to Incorporate Theory of Operant Conditioning to University Education

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Unlike college students, university students are genuinely action verbs that come under both headings in order to guide
interested in master these skills as they are more matured the student for a particular action. After carefully designing
enough to feel the sense of responsibility of their own the intended learning outcomes with the help of Blooms
learning. Their main expectation from the university taxonomy, all the activities and assessment can be balanced
education is to get an opportunity and environment to and aligned according to those outcomes.
master these skills and thereby make themselves more
prepared and qualified before they enter to the work world. Therefore, Bloom’s Taxonomy is kind of a standardized
However the two domains: cognitive and psychomotor are language that articulating precisely what the university
almost exclusively emphasized within most of the university teachers need to do to promote students’ deep learning and
educational systems while the affective domain is largely higher order thinking skills.
ignored. Of cause, the skills develop under cognitive and B. Biggs’s SOLO (Structure of the Observed Learning
psychomotor domains are certainly useful in the learning Outcome) Taxonomy
process and they should not be ignored. However more
attention should be given to bring the affective domain up to SOLO Taxonomy is another systematic way of describing
the same level as the other two, because, the best learning how a learner’s performance develops from simple to
can be done only when all these three domains are utilized complex levels in their learning. It was developed by J. B.
in conjunction with each other. Imbalance between these Biggs and Collis (1982), and was well described in (J. Biggs
domains can make young people more aggressive and and Tang 2007). It has 5 stages starting from simplest to
selfish and thereby hinder the opportunity to create a complex called pre-structural, uni-structural, multi-
friendly healthy learning environment that support student structural which are in a quantitative phrase and relational
leaning. and extended abstract which are in a qualitative phrase.
IV. LEVELS OF LEARNING
Under pre-structural phase students gain the ability to
Taxonomy simply means “classification" (Atherton 2011).
acquire some unconnected information which has no
Bloom’s taxonomy and SOLO taxonomy are two well-
organization and hardly any meaning. Then in uni-structural
known taxonomies that discuss under cognitive domain.
level students gain the ability to make simple and obvious
A. Bloom’s Taxonomy connections, but their significance is not yet grasped as a
Blooms’ Taxonomy is a systematic demonstration of how whole. Under multi-structural level students further develop
learners develops their level of performance from simple to their ability to make number of connections between
complex in cognitive domain of learning. This comprises individual items and obvious connections, but still their
with six stages from the simplest level to the most complex significance as a whole are yet to be identified. Under
called know, understand, apply, analyze, synthesize and relational students start to understand the significance of the
evaluate (Woolfolk 1995). parts in relation to the whole. Finally, under extended
abstract students gain the ability to make connections not
Bloom’s taxonomy is not the only system of classification only within the given subject area, but also beyond it, and even
for cognitive domains. However, it is a widely accepted develop the ability to generalize and transfer the principles
system as it clearly illustrate how students can gradually and ideas to related matters.
improve their intellectual abilities form simplest to complex
and how and why certain questions, learning activities are Therefore teaching and learning activities in the university
better choices for assessing different levels of student curriculum should be carefully designed such that the students
mastery. It is university teacher’s responsibility to can progressively master these levels. If not the knowledge
understand and aware about the existence of these different levels and skills they acquire form the university curriculum would
of student mastery ranging from simple recitation of enable the students only to get through the examinations
information, to formulating informed opinions regarding without giving any further support for them to meet the need
complex problems and therby facilitate a learning and challenges of the work world.
environment that allows the student to achieve these levels. V. LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS
According to Cox (1994) stage 1 and 2 of Bloom’s taxonomy AND HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS
(Know and understand) can be achieved either through A. Lower Order Thinking skills (LOTs)
“active” or “passive learning” but the remaining stages can only
be achieved through “active learning”. So when designing the Lower order thinking includes passive activities such as
learning outcomes, lesson plans, university teachers should reading, writing, and listing. In lower order thinking it is not
pay attention to select the most appropriate action verbs in expected the student to apply the knowledge to solve a given
order to guide the student to reach the intended learning (complex) problem, under this the student is expected to
outcomes. Another aspect of Bloom’s taxonomy is that, the recall and slightly understand the materials. So if a person
words have been carefully selected such that they represent only obtains lower order thinking skills, he will not gain the
different levels of knowledge while making them measurable. ability to deal with real life situations or handle complex
For an example, the first level represents just knowing and for problems. However we cannot totally ignore lower order
the teacher to measure the student’s level in that aspect, he thinking skills as it lays the foundation for the skills required to
can ask student to list some items of a given topic. It is also move into higher order thinking (Higgins, Keen, and Falk
recommended to not to use the two words “know” and 2012).
“understand” when designing intended learning outcomes as
those words are so general. Instead university teachers can use

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B. Higher Order Thinking skills (HOTs) guide students to reach to each of these knowledge levels and
thereby move from surface to deep learning and also LOTs to
Higher order thinking is a learning process that is more HOTS. It is also important to note that we cannot totally ignore
difficult to achieve or guide to reach that level. It requires surface learning as it provides the base for deep understanding.
more cognitive process in the creation of new knowledge with Our attempt should therefore focus not to eliminate surface
in depth analysis, evaluation, and synthesis. Further it requires learning but to use surface learning to lay the foundation to
active learning and teaching techniques than that of when
help the students to gain deep understanding.
learning or teaching facts and concepts. Critical thinking and
problem solving abilities are also required to move into higher According to Floyd, Harrington, and Santiago (2009),
order thinking (Higgins, Keen, and Falk 2012). students who are sufficiently engaged with course materials
and recognize the value of a course as high, have a greater
As described in Section IV A), the 6 levels in the Bloom’s chance to get an overall positive learning experience. Further
taxonomy are labeled to differentiate between levels of these students are more likely to incorporate lot of deep
thinking and learning. The first two levels of the taxonomy: learning strategies during their learning process. In contrast,
know, and understand focus on helping learners to develop learning strategies associated with lower course values and
their lower order thinking skills [LOTS] whereas the top four less engagement contribute only to surface learning. Also it is
levels: apply, analyze, synthesize and evaluate focus on quite obvious that the modern work world expects more
helping learners to develop their higher order thinking skills diverse skills and abilities rather than just memorizing fact
[HOTS] (Alexander 2012). and figure from a university student. Therefore, university
From all these things we can understand that the process of students should always try to engage in deep learning instead
learning is hierarchical in nature: in other words learning of merely depending on surface understanding about the
moves upwards from relatively simple straightforward materials.
activities to much more complex activities that require higher
VII. ACTIVE LEARNING
order knowledge and skills. For example, it is much easier to
‘list down central tendency measures’ as ‘mean, median, According to Moore and McCabe (1989), for effective
mode’ than to ‘choose which measure is most suitable to teaching of introductory statistics courses specially for those
summarize a given set of data’. Therefore teaching and who do not want to become professional statisticians but to
assessment activities should be designed such that student can become professionals who will use statistics for their work,
develop both LOTs and HOTs while giving more emphasis on the curriculum should maintain a balance between content
HOTs. (what teachers want students to learn), pedagogy (what
teachers do to help students learn) and technology. Defining
VI. DEEP AND SURFACE LEARNING intended learning outcomes with the help of Blooms’
According to Floyd, Harrington, and Santiago (2009), ‘deep taxonomy and properly inform the student about the intended
learning’ is about the ability to achieve higher order thinking learning outcomes allow the students to know what teachers
skills such as synthesis and evaluation, and a personal want them to learn (content). Equally important the teachers
commitment to learn the material. In contrast, ‘surface to understand what they should do to guide the students to
learning’ is associated with rote learning and the focus is achieve the predefined intended learning outcomes.
mostly on earning a passing grade instead of gaining thorough In the educational literature, integrating active learning
understanding of the concepts. The students who use only methods to teaching process is one of the most recommended
surface learning strategies, their main focus in their learning and widely accepted strategies that allow the teachers to
process is to avoid failure with the minimum amount of effort improve teaching effectiveness at most academic levels.
and involvement (Cano 2007, Draper (2009)). Shallow According to Ledolter (1995), active learning methods can
learners also believe that they can understand the material include activities such as projects, in class-discussion in
correctly. But the truth is they usually fail to see the which the students get a predominant role and ownership in
connections between concepts that deep learners do. Deep their own learning. In addition to that other active learning
learners on the other hand can transfer the concepts they have methods such as laboratory exercises, role-play, in-class
learned to a variety of situations and thereby create various discussions, group projects, and activities with class-
connections within their knowledge and understanding. generated data, student written and oral presentations can
From the view of mathematics and statistics, surface learning also enhance students’ enthusiasm for learning. According to
includes activities such as memorizing facts and formula Moore and McCabe (1989) with the rapid growth of
without understanding the logic. One problem that merge technology, incorporating the available tools and techniques
with surface learning is that it may be enough to support (e.g., statistics software) is equally important to emphasize
short-term memory but not enough for long term memory. statistical literacy rather than tedious calculations. According
On the other hand deep learning involves of the hard work of to Kvam (2000), ‘cooperative learning’ is another form of
understanding where the given formula come from, the logic active learning in which small group interaction within the
behind it, connecting new information with the existing classroom helps students to gain knowledge through peer
knowledge, solving real-world problems using the knowledge teaching and team work. Further, Johnson, Johnson, and
etc. Stanne (2000) believe that cooperative learning methods
have a positive impact on student learning as it allows to
From Bloom’s and SOLO taxonomy it is quite obvious that create a dynamic environment where students are motivated to
knowing is not just a “yes or no” thing. Instead, there are ask questions and comment on related matters that appear
several levels of understanding from surface to deep. unclear to them.
Therefore when designing questions for tutorials,
examinations etc. university teachers should give attention to

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According to Northern-Ireland-Curriculum (2000), by learner enters the first phase of the cycle, concrete experience
incorporating active learning sessions teacher can change (CE) phase. As he observes others and reflects on his own
their role from “teacher-centered classroom” to “learner- and other’s experiences, he proceeds to the reflective
centered classroom”; “product-centered learning” to observation (RO) phrase. Next, he attempts to integrate his
“Process-centered learner”; “teacher as a ‘transmitter’ of observations and perceptions into logical theories, thus
knowledge” to “teacher as an ‘organizer’ of knowledge” and moving into the third phase of abstract conceptualization
“teacher as a ‘doer’ for students” to “teacher as an ‘enabler’ (AC). When he uses concepts to make decisions and solve
facilitating students in their learning”. It also make an problems, he exhibits the final phase of the learning cycle,
impact on the behaviour of student by changing his role from active experimentation (AE). It is important to note that
“being passive recipient of knowledge” to “active and learners can enter to the cycle at any point according to their
participatory learner”; “focusing on answering questions” to preference on the activities associated with a particular part
“asking questions”; “being Spoon fed” to “taking of the cycle.
responsibility of their own learning”; “competing with one
another” to “collaborating in their learning”; and “wanting to B. Neil Fleming’s VARK Model
have their own say” to, “actively listening to opinions of Another most common and widely used categorizations of the
others”. various types of learning styles is Fleming’s VARK model
However, active learning classes can be more labor intensive (Fleming 2001). It categorizes learning styles into four main
and time consuming. Sometimes the activities could take categories called: Visual, Auditory, Read-write, and
quite a long time than was expected. Incorporating properly Kinesthetic. According to Dzubak (2007), stimulating the
designed ‘lesson plans’ (Ding and Carlson 2013) will allow brain via multi-sensory models can increase the likelihood
the university teachers to overcome these problems. that the information will be retained or remembered.

VIII. LEARNING STYLES IX. CONCLUSION

Students are different from one another and it is important to It is clear that the process of learning is hierarchical in
give them an opportunity to show their talents and learn in a nature: in other words learning moves upwards from
way that work for them. According to Bourne (2014), the relatively simple straight-forward activities to much more
term ‘learning styles’ refers to the concept that individuals complex activities that require higher order knowledge and
are different to one another with respect to what mode of skills. Further, in tertiary education both the teacher and the
instruction or learning technique that work most effectively student should take active and equal responsibility on the
for them. learning process in order to achieve a sustainable learning
experience and a strong, solid foundation on which to build
Assessments of learning styles usually involves asking their careers.
people to evaluate and rank what type of presentation tools
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